New
Zealand, island nation in the South Pacific
Ocean, located south of the equator in the Southern Hemisphere,
and marking the eastern boundary of the Tasman
Sea, a portion of the Pacific Ocean that separates New Zealand
and the nearest large landmass, Australia,
by a distance of about 1,600 km (1,000 mi). New Zealand includes two
large islands that constitute most of its landmass, as well as
numerous small islands. New Zealand administers two overseas
territories, Tokelau
and Ross Dependency (in Antarctica). The self-governing entities of
Niue
and the Cook
Islands are in free association with New Zealand, which handles
their foreign affairs and defense as requested.
New Zealand is known for its scenic
landscapes of snowcapped mountains and rolling green pastures. Its
image as a farming outpost stems from the traditional importance of
agriculture to the economy as well as the low population density in
most areas. However, the majority of New Zealanders live in urban
areas, and many now earn a living in service industries such as
tourism. The capital of New Zealand is Wellington.
The largest and most cosmopolitan city is Auckland.
Polynesians first settled the islands of
New Zealand about 800 to 1,000 years ago, naming the islands
Aotearoa (“Land of the Long White Cloud”). Their descendants are the
Maori. The first European settlers came from the United Kingdom,
arriving in increasing numbers after New Zealand became a colony of
the British Empire in 1840. Until the mid-20th century the non-Maori
population of New Zealand was predominantly European in origin.
Since then many people have migrated from the Pacific Islands and
Asia, and the ethnic composition of the country is becoming more
diverse. In 1907 New Zealand became a self-governing dominion within
the British Empire. Now an independent nation, New Zealand maintains
close ties with the United Kingdom as a full member of the Commonwealth
of Nations, but increasingly it sees its identity as a nation in
the Pacific and Asia.
New Zealand is part of the Pacific
Islands, or Oceania, a grouping of thousands of islands in the
Pacific Ocean. The South Island and the North Island of New Zealand
are Oceania’s second and third largest islands, respectively. New
Zealand is considered part of Polynesia,
one of three major divisions of the Pacific Islands.
The total land area of New Zealand is
267,990 sq km (103,470 sq mi), about the same size as Japan or the
British Isles. The North and South islands make up almost the entire
area of the country. Separating these islands is Cook
Strait, a channel between the South Pacific Ocean on the east
and the Tasman Sea on the west. The islands stretch along a
predominantly northeast by southwest axis. Their length from north
to south is about 1,600 km (1,000 mi), and their maximum width from
east to west is 450 km (280 mi).
Many small and widely scattered islands
are also included in the territory of New Zealand. Some are tiny and
uninhabited. Of the inhabited islands, Stewart
Island is the largest and nearest, located about 30 km (20 mi)
off the southern shore of the South Island. Campbell
Island lies 600 km (375 mi) farther south, and the Chatham
Islands are about 850 km (530 mi) east of the South Island.
Raoul Island, the largest of the Kermadec
Islands, lies more than 900 km (600 mi) northeast of the North
Island.
The South Island contains the highest
point in New Zealand, Mount
Cook (in Maori, Aorangi), reaching a height of 3,754 m (12,316
ft) in the central Southern
Alps. Another 18 mountains in the chain rise above 3,000 m
(10,000 ft). The Southern Alps extend about 500 km (300 mi), almost
the entire length of the South Island. The western side of the chain
rises at the coast, with a narrow strip of coastline between
mountains and sea. The eastern side of the chain descends to a
region of rolling hills and fertile plains, drained by numerous
glacier-fed rivers. (Mount Cook contains Tasman Glacier, the largest
of about 360 glaciers in the Southern Alps.) The east-central
Canterbury Plains form the largest lowland area in the country. To
the south are the hills and plains of the Otago Plateau, which is
bordered on the west by the wilderness of Fiordland
National Park. Here the southern foothills of the Southern Alps
meet a rugged coastline of fjords (fiords), or deep, narrow coastal
inlets. In the north the Alps break up into numerous mountain
ranges, with the Richmond Range continuing to the northeastern end
of the island. The Tasman Mountains form another mountain system in
the northwest.
On the North Island elevations rarely
exceed 1,000 m (3,000 ft), with the exception of several volcanic
peaks. In the west is Mount
Taranaki (also named Mount Egmont), with an almost perfectly
symmetrical cone rising to a height of 2,518 m (8,261 ft). The
central volcanic plateau contains the peaks of Mount Ruapehu (2,797
m/9,177 ft), Mount Ngauruhoe (2,291 m/ 7,515 ft), and Mount
Tongariro (1,968 m/ 6,458 ft). Many of these volcanoes are still
considered to be active even if they have not erupted in the last
two centuries. The two most recently active volcanoes are Mount
Ruapehu and White Island (in Maori, Whakaari). Mount Ruapehu, the
highest point of the North Island, erupted with substantial clouds
of ash in 1995 and 1996, and dangerous lahars (concrete-like
mixtures of volcanic ash and mud) occasionally slide down its
slopes. White Island is the peak of a submerged volcano in the Bay
of Plenty, off the east coast of the North Island. Visitors to White
Island can witness constant low-intensity volcanic activity.
New Zealand is located within the Ring of
Fire, a region encircling the Pacific Ocean where the movement of
tectonic plates (huge segments of Earth’s crust) leads to volcanic
and seismic activity. The Pacific and Indo-Australian tectonic
plates meet at New Zealand, but their movements are significantly
different under the two main islands. At the South Island the plates
converge in a mostly lateral, or sideways, movement. This created
the Southern Alps by uplifting and folding oceanic sediment. At the
North Island, however, the Pacific plate is folding under the other
plate. This subduction has forced volcanic activity to the surface.
Scientific evidence shows that the North Island has had a number of
huge volcanic eruptions over the last 30,000 years. Two huge
eruptions 26,000 years ago and nearly 1,000 years ago created the
deep crater that is now Lake Taupo; the latter eruption is
considered to be one of the largest in history. Volcanic activity
continues today in the island’s central region. Geysers and hot
springs (signs of geothermal activity) are also found throughout the
region, and earthquakes are frequent but generally moderate.
The coastline of New Zealand is about
15,130 km (9,400 mi) in length. The North Island coastline has many
bays, harbors, and inlets. The coastline is highly irregular in the
region of Northland, a 330-km–long (205-mi-long) peninsular
extension to the northwest of Auckland. The chief seaports of
Auckland and Wellington overlook natural harbors. The South Island
coastline is more regular in parts, although exceptions include
Fiordland in the southwest, where glaciers long ago carved deep
valleys that the ocean flooded to form fjords, and the Marlborough
Sounds in the northeast, an area of many sheltered inlets and
islands.
Lake
Taupo is the largest lake in New Zealand. It covers an area of
606 sq km (234 sq mi) in the central volcanic plateau of the North
Island. The lake occupies the crater of an extinct volcano and
reaches a depth of 162 m (531 ft). Its outlet is the north-flowing
Waikato River, the country’s longest river. The Waikato flows to the
northwest for a distance of 425 km (264 mi) and empties into the
Tasman Sea. It has been dammed in several places for
hydroelectricity generation, and its drainage basin is one of the
country’s most fertile agricultural areas.
The largest lake of the South Island is
Te Anau, covering an area of 344 sq km (133 sq mi). Te Anau and many
other South Island lakes are glacially carved troughs on the eastern
flank of the Southern Alps. Several of these lakes are part of the
upper Waitaki River hydroelectric system. Water from Lake Manapouri,
south of Te Anau, is also harnessed for hydroelectricity.
Most of the rivers of the South Island
originate in the pristine glacial lakes of the Southern Alps and
flow generally southeastward to empty into the Pacific Ocean. The
Clutha River, the largest river of the island at a length of 336 km
(209 mi), originates at Lake Wanaka and is fed by several
tributaries as it flows southward across Otago Province. The Clutha
River discharges the largest volume of water of any river in New
Zealand and has been dammed in a number of places for
hydroelectricity generation. North of the Clutha, the Waitaki River
crosses the Canterbury Plains in central South Island. Its huge
catchment area is one of the most valuable hydroelectric power
resources in the country. It and other rivers to the north formed
the Canterbury Plains by redistributing vast quantities of gravel
from the Southern Alps. They occupy wide gravel beds and are
navigable only by jetboat, a flat-bottomed boat that skims the
surface of shallow waters. The rivers provide a source of irrigation
water for the crops and grasslands of the agricultural region.
The plant life of New Zealand includes
about 1,500 indigenous species found nowhere else in the world,
including the golden kowhai and the scarlet pohutukawa. The number
of introduced plant species now rivals the number of indigenous
species, however. Some introduced species, such as the furze
(gorse), a thorny evergreen shrub, have acclimated so well in New
Zealand that they have become a menace, spreading quickly and
displacing indigenous vegetation. Most of the indigenous trees and
shrubs of New Zealand are evergreen, including the kauri, rimu,
kahikatea, and totara. Original mixed-evergreen forests remain in
only the remotest areas of the North Island and in the Southern
Alps. Beech trees predominate on the western slopes of the Southern
Alps. Radiata pine, a fast-growing timber tree imported from
California, is found in large reforestation plantations on the
central volcanic plateau of the North Island. Sown grasses
predominate in many lowland plains and on the eastern flanks of the
Southern Alps up to an elevation of about 1,500 m (5,000
ft).
The islands of New Zealand formed before
the advent of mammals, and isolation from other landmasses allowed
birds, bats, and reptiles to flourish in the absence of predatory
mammals. Without predators, many bird species in New Zealand became
flightless or semi-flightless, often nesting on the ground. Many of
these birds, including the giant ostrichlike moa, became extinct
after people colonized the islands. Some species such as the moa
were hunted to extinction, while others suffered from the
destruction of habitat and the introduction of foreign predators,
such as rats and stoats. Some flightless birds have survived,
however, including the kiwi, a nocturnal bird that is the national
emblem; the kakapo, the world’s largest parrot; and the weka and the
takahe, both large species of rail. However, many of the remaining
indigenous species are in danger of becoming extinct. Some are
officially protected as endangered species, and the government has
designated nature reserves for the preservation of natural habitat.
Native songbirds such as the bellbird and
tui also contribute to the country’s large population of wild birds.
The sparrow, blackbird, thrush, skylark, magpie, and myna are
well-acclimatized imported species. New Zealand also abounds in a
great variety of seabirds, such as the albatross, and numerous
migratory birds.
The only indigenous mammals in New
Zealand are bats. All other wild mammals in New Zealand arrived with
humans and are descended from imported species of deer, rabbits,
goats, pigs, weasels, ferrets, and opossums. The populations of some
introduced mammals, such as rabbits and the Australian opossum, have
reached plague proportions. No snakes and few species of venomous
insects inhabit New Zealand. The tuatara, a lizardlike reptile that
emerged more than 200 million years ago, survives nowhere else in
the world but on a few islands off the coast of New
Zealand.
The rivers and lakes of New Zealand have
a variety of fish, including whitebait, eel, and freshwater
crustaceans, particularly crayfish. Trout and salmon are imported
species. The surrounding ocean waters are the habitat of many
species, including the snapper, flounder, blue cod, hapuku,
tarakihi, swordfish, and shark, as well as edible shellfish such as
the oyster, mussel, paua (abalone), and toheroa. The humpback whale
and the southern right whale were once numerous in New Zealand’s
offshore waters, but these species never recovered from the
intensive commercial whaling that took place in the 19th century.
Land is one of the country’s most
valuable resources. Much of the soil is not naturally fertile,
however, and has to be supplemented with fertilizers for crop
cultivation. More than half of the land area is either cropland or
pastureland. Most of the arable land is found on the east coasts of
both islands, in particular the Canterbury Plains. Pastures for
livestock grazing dominate in north-central and western North Island
and southern South Island.
About 30 percent of the land area is
forested. The country has 6.4 million hectares (15.8 million acres)
of old-growth forest, much of which is designated for preservation.
In addition, some forests are plantations of imported species such
as the radiata pine. The western Southern Alps of the South Island
constitute the largest forested area of the country and include
extensive areas of native forest. The North Island has native forest
mainly in more remote areas, notably around Mount Taranaki and in
isolated pockets of Northland.
New Zealand rivers and lakes are an
important natural resource as the source of hydroelectricity.
Mineral resources are limited, with some reserves of coal, gold,
iron ore, and limestone. Significant stocks of natural gas and less
plentiful reserves of oil are located both offshore and in the
western region of the North Island.
F
Climate
New Zealand’s location in the Southern
Hemisphere, or south of the equator, means that its seasons are
opposite to those in the Northern Hemisphere. The warmest months of
summer are January and February and the coldest months of winter are
June and July. New Zealand is located in the Southern Temperate
Zone, south of the tropics. It has a mild climate with four seasons.
Inland areas have cooler winters and warmer summers than coastal
areas, where the moderating influence of the ocean creates a more
temperate climate.
Temperatures tend to be warmer in the
north than in the south; the warmest area is in the extreme northern
end of the North Island, and the coldest area is on the southwestern
slopes of the Southern Alps. In most of the country, however, there
are only minimal climatic differences between north and south.
Average low winter temperatures range from 2°C (35°F) in
Christchurch, on the South Island’s central east coast, to 8°C
(46°F) in Auckland, in the northwest of the North Island. Average
high summer temperatures are 23°C (73°F) in Auckland and 21°C (70°F)
in Christchurch.
New Zealand is located in the “Roaring
Forties” wind belt, an area between latitudes 40° and 50° south
where westerly winds sweep across the southern oceans. The
prevailing westerly winds bring moisture from the ocean, resulting
in heavy rainfall on the western coasts, especially on the South
Island. The main divide of the Southern Alps receives the most
precipitation in the country. The mountains form a natural barrier
to weather patterns from the west; in the eastern rain shadow of the
mountains, the westerly winds become warm, dry, and gusty. The east
coasts are therefore much drier than the west coasts, and eastern
areas of the South Island have some of New Zealand’s sunniest,
driest weather. Average annual rainfall in Christchurch is about 638
mm (25 in), compared to 2,906 mm (114 in) in Hokitika, on the west
coast. Auckland receives 1,247 mm (49 in) of rain annually.
Although the westerly winds prevail, the
eastern part of the country is open to frequent southerlies,
wind currents drawing cold air up from the Antarctic. Usually they
bring rain, a sharp fall in temperature, and in winter, snow in the
mountains. The northernmost extension of the North Island is subject
to the tail end of tropical weather systems from the Pacific, and
temperatures there are warm year-round, in most places never
reaching the freezing point.
G
Environmental Issues
New Zealand has a reputation as “clean
and green” because of its relatively small population and unspoiled
alpine scenery. However, the country faces real environmental
issues. Industrial and agricultural discharges into waterways,
notably the Waikato River, have led to water pollution in some
areas. Air pollution from motor-vehicle and industrial emissions is
a concern in the large cities, such as Auckland. In addition,
widespread clearing of the original mixed-evergreen forests—both for
timber and to create more agricultural land—has led to loss of
wildlife habitat. The practice also led to severe soil erosion, a
problem the government has attempted to solve through reforestation
programs. However, targeted reforestation areas have been replanted
with fast-growing nonindigenous species.
New Zealanders have pioneered
conservation efforts, clearing offshore islands of rats and other
predators to help native birds survive. New Zealanders also have a
tradition of environmental activism. In the 1980s grass-roots
opposition to the construction of new hydroelectric power stations
led the government to suspend plans for future projects. New Zealand
relies heavily on hydroelectric power, which is generally regarded
as clean energy. Many New Zealanders opposed the construction of new
dams, however, because they alter the natural flow of rivers and are
environmentally disruptive. Controversy over the building of new
dams was an important factor in the creation of a new tier of
regional government in 1989 to help implement resource-management
provisions designed to foster long-term sustainability. The
antinuclear lobby is also a potent force in New Zealand. There are
no nuclear reactors in the country, and nuclear-armed or
nuclear-powered vessels are not allowed in the ports.
The government-managed national parks
program was significantly reorganized and expanded in 1987. Nearly
one-quarter of the country’s land area is protected in
government-designated national parks and reserves, including some of
the country’s wetlands, mangrove swamps, coastal areas, and native
forest. New Zealand works with the World Heritage Fund to preserve
the World Heritage Site of Te Wahipounamu. This internationally
designated preservation area includes several locations in the
Southern Alps, including some areas of indigenous forests and two
alpine national parks, as well as the coastal fjords. In addition,
some areas have been designated for the protection of wildlife,
including the Royal Albatross Sanctuary on the southern coast of the
South Island, the world’s largest mainland breeding ground for the
royal albatross.
New Zealand is actively engaged in
helping to preserve the fragile marine habitats and ecosystems of
the South Pacific Ocean. The country has ratified a number of
international environmental agreements on topics such as
biodiversity, marine dumping, and whaling.
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